Energy

Targets

LEAP MODEL OUTPUT DISCUSSION

As part of the development of Vermont’s Comprehensive Energy Plan (CEP) and Climate Action Plan (CAP), Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) and Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM) developed a scenario model of Vermont’s energy consumption and emissions and used the model to construct pathways to meet statutory greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction obligations under the state’s Global Warming Solutions Act (GWSA). The model was built using SEI’s Low Emissions Analysis Platform (LEAP), a software tool for energy system modeling and emissions accounting. The model contains a representation of residential, commercial, industrial and transport energy use at a state level.

In order to support enhanced energy planning at the regional and municipal levels, the Department has undertaken an effort to regionalize final energy demand outputs from the statewide LEAP modeling for four core sectors: residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation. A simple disaggregation of those results was completed for each of the regional planning regions based on key drivers of energy demand. This has been done for:

• The Baseline (business-as-usual) scenario developed to estimate Vermont/regional energy demand under normal policy and programmatic conditions and 
• The Central GWSA Mitigation ("CAP Mitigation") scenario developed to meet the state’s GHG reduction requirements.

On state and regional levels, energy demand is depicted as decreasing substantially by the year 2050. Figure 13 below illustrates the total Windham Region demand by sector. The Baseline Scenario is the upper curve of the barred area. This barred area illustrates the difference between the energy demand of the Baseline Scenario verses the CAP Mitigation Scenario. Much of this difference is accounted for through assumed conservation and efficiency measures across all energy sectors (transportation, heating, electricity) due to gains in technological efficiency and decreased demand due to conservation measures.

FIGURE 13: WINDHAM REGION ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY SECTOR, CAP MITIGATION SCENARIO

The Windham Region’s energy consumption by fuel type over time is depicted in Figure 14.  Throughout the benchmark years, the model assumes fossil fuel consumption is phased out and replaced by more renewable resources. The total volume of fuel decreases due to assumptions about advancements in efficiencies across all sectors.

FIGURE 14: WINDHAM REGION ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY FUEL, CAP MITIGATION SCENARIO

Electricity

The electric sector is where much of the change will occur over time. The model assumes electrification of the light duty vehicle fleet, along with an assumed electrification of heating and cooling systems, and will result in a dramatic increase in electricity consumption. However, the model also assumes increased efficiency of these technologies over time. The increase in consumption is offset by the increases in efficiency and leads to what looks like gradual increases in the electricity consumed. In the year 2050, electricity is the primary source of fuel for the region and accounts for almost half of the total fuel consumed.

TRANSPORTATION

Transportation currently accounts for more than a third of the Windham Region’s energy consumption.  To achieve the 90 x 50 goal, the transportation sector will need to radically transform its fleet efficiency and fuel sources. The model assumes consumption of fuels in the transportation sector will drop by 46% from the 2015 base estimates, and that the makeup of the energy mix will change from predominantly gasoline to electricity.

The LEAP model breaks down the transportation sector into passenger cars, light trucks, medium duty, heavy duty and non-road vehicles, and applies separate fuel switching assumptions in the data. The notable decreases in consumption are in the passenger car, light truck, and medium duty categories. Figure 15 and 16 show the changes over time for passenger cars and light trucks, respectively.

FIGURE 15: REGIONAL PASSENGER CAR ENERGY DEMAND, CAP MITGATION SCENARIO

FIGURE 16: REGIONAL LIGHT TRUCK ENERGY DEMAND, CAP MITIGATION SCENARIO

THERMAL

RESIDENTIAL

Today, the heating sector consumes approximately 42% of the energy in the region. The LEAP model shows dramatic decrease in home heating consumption between 2015 and 2050. In Figure 17 below, the Reference Scenario is accounted for on the upper limit of the lined bar. Comparing the Reference Scenario to the 90 x 2050 CAP Scenario for the residential sector, both assume decreased consumption over time. The decrease in consumption reflects the Total Energy Study’s assumptions that underlie the Reference Scenario accounting for more houses heating with heat pump technology and wood pellet systems. They also account for assumed technological advances in the efficiency of the heat pumps and increased weatherization and building envelope efficiency work. Collectively, these assumptions account for the decreasing use trend in the Reference Scenario portion of the graph in Figure 17.

FIGURE 17: REGIONAL RESIDENTIAL SECTOR ENERGY DEMAND

Underlying the reference bars in the data for the 90 x 2050 CAP Scenario are many of the same assumptions. In Figure 17, a notable trend is that most of the fuels decrease in volume by 2050. This is where efficiency plays into the equation. Although the volume of these sources is decreasing, that decrease assumes weatherization and building envelope conservation measures. Therefore, a decreasing volume of fuel is assumed to be capable of heating more space (houses) overall. The two fuel types that show increasing volume are electricity and biodiesel.

Approximately 30% the housing stock in the Windham Region is second homes. The LEAP model accounts for second home energy consumption by assuming that these homes use 15% of the heating fuel used by a single-family home.

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL

The LEAP model assumes that the least amount of change in energy consumption and fuel mix will be within the commercial and industrial sectors. This is due to an assumed growth in these sectors over time. Figure 18 illustrates industrial consumption in the region. In total energy units, there is very little difference between the Reference Scenario and with the 90 x 2050 CAP Scenario. There are, however, two noticeable trend assumptions underlying the fuel mix ratio: that electricity consumption decreases substantially over time, and that wood is increasingly used as a fuel source. Residual fuel oil and liquid petroleum gas (LPG) both remain more or less constant over time as they are denser fuels with no efficient substitute as of yet.  These results are directly from the Total Energy Study.[¹]

FIGURE 18: REGIONAL INDUSTRIAL SECTION ENERGY DEMAND

Commercial Energy Demand portrayed in Figure 19 also varies little between the Reference and 90 x2050 CAP Scenarios. However, the 90 x 2050 scenario assumes that heating oil and propane are replaced by an increase in electricity, biodiesel and biogas, and that overall energy consumption decreases by 17%. The commercial sector is assumed to grow over time, accounting for only moderate decline in total energy consumption.

FIGURE 19: REGIONAL COMMERCIAL SECTOR ENERGY DEMAND

TARGETS AND CURRENT STATUS COMPARISONS

The projections using the LEAP model illustrates one possible pathway to meet the State’s 90x50 goal. Though the actual pathway is likely to divert from what is presented, the model allows for the Windham Region to plan for the upcoming years with targets in conservation and efficiency, electrical, transportation, thermal and energy generation. 

This section shows LEAP targets for the closest target year (2025). For full Windham Region LEAP Targets (through 2050), please refer to Appendix A of the Energy Section. The following discussion references specific target data for energy efficiency and fuel conversion targets, developed for the Windham Region by the aforementioned LEAP model. The charts also show where the Region stand as of 2020 in many of the categories.

CONSERVATION AND EFFICIENCY

The conservation and efficiency pathway is one of the first most easily accessible set of actions for residents and municipalities to tackle to help the Region achieve the 90x50 targets. Based on the outputs of the LEAP model and calculation guidance from the Department of Public Service, the Windham Region has ambitious goals in weatherization.

About a third of the housing stock in the Region was built before 1940. The relative age of the housing stock means that many of homes do not meet a high standard of efficiency. Even homes built after 1940 still often had little or inadequate insulation built in. Weatherization upgrades in both the residential and commercial sector are needed for building envelopes to become more energy efficient so as they retain interior temperatures instead of leaking heat or cooling through roofs, doors, windows, and walls. 

TABLE 2: WINDHAM REGION RESIDENTIAL WEATHERIZATION TARGETS AND CURRENT STATUS

Cap Mitigation Leap Target 2020	Households Weatherized in 2020 & 2021 (Efficiency VT Reporting)	CAP Mitigation Leap Target 2025
1,271 Households	112 Households	4,478 Households

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 2 highlights how the Windham Region needs to greatly increase the number of residences that are weatherizing their homes. The data from Efficiency Vermont does not account for residences where weatherization work is being completed as part of a home renovation where the owner does not utilize incentives, or for smaller weatherization projects that homeowners might accomplish, such as having window inserts installed through the Window Dressers program. One way to increase the number of residential weatherization projects is to work with regional organizations such as SEVCA, who perform weatherization services, to provide information and education on services and incentives available to homeowners. Other activities could include working with municipal energy committees to implement weatherization programs that would benefit homeowners and documenting the work they are accomplishing to share on a regional level.

THERMAL

The heating sector drives a large portion of the Region’s energy consumption. For the 90x50 goal to be attainable, conservation and efficiency must be actively pursued in order to make most effective use of switching to renewable heating fuels. 

The data in Table 3 illustrate the extent to which the fuel sources in the residential sector are anticipated to shift using the LEAP modeling. The data in Table 4 are the calculations of the thermal energy demand in the Windham Region based on estimates of reported demand through the American Community Survey (ACS). It is difficult to compare the LEAP Model projections and the ACS current data because the base assumptions and numbers used for both are different. However, what can be seen at the broader level by using the percentage of change is that use of renewables sources should climb over the 2015 baseline year and the use of fossil fuels should decrease. Electricity use appears to decrease, but the assumption is that as electric sources for heating are installed, weatherization is also occurring so that the actual use of MMBTUs decreases. A significant difference in the two models is that the ACS estimates assume a decrease in wood as a heating source while the LEAP projection shows it increasing.  The other difference is that the decrease in the use of heating oil in the 2020 ACS estimate is only half of what the 2025 LEAP goal is. The Windham Region will need to continue to pursue weatherization of the housing stock and the conversion away from fossil fuels towards more renewable heating sources in order to meet the target goals set out in the LEAP modeling.

TABLE 5: WINDHAM REGION LEAP MODEL TARGETS – RESIDENTIAL THERMAL ENERGY DEMAND

Fuel Type	2015 Baseline    (Thousand MMBTUs)	2015 CAP Goal (Thousand MMBTUs)	10 Year Change (Pct)
Electricity	460	415	(9.78%)
Wood/Wood Pellets	395	463	17.21%
Propane	403	300	(25.56%)
Heating Oil	701	518	(26.11%)
Biodiesel	0	32	32%

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 6: WINDHAM REGION ACS ESTIMATES – RESIDENTIAL THERMAL ENERGY DEMAND

Fuel Type	2015  (Thousand MMBTUs)	2020    (Thousand MMBTUs)	5 Year Change (Pct)
Electricity	130	100	(23.08%)
Wood/Wood Pellets	415	398	(4.10%)
Propane	428	331	(22.66%)
Heating Oil	1,171	1,011	(13.66%)
Other (most likely predominantly fossil fuels)	59	51	13.56%

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The installation of new cold climate heat pumps is a major goal of the residential heating sector to attain the 90X50 targets. The 2025 LEAP Model CAP Mitigation scenario target for the Windham Region is 5,160 heat pumps installed. Data provided by Efficiency Vermont shows approximately 1,698 heat pumps installed between 2020 and 2021. The Region will need to over double the installation of heat pumps per year to reach the 2025 target goal. Heat pump water heater installation targets through the LEAP model shows that between 2020 and 2025, there should be 3,788 added to residences in the Region. Efficiency Vermont data shows that in 2020 and 2021 there were 409 installed. Like heat pumps, heat pump water heater installations need to greatly increase to meet the 2025 LEAP target.

For the Commercial sector, there is a similar transition away from the use of fossil fuels and increased use of renewable sources. With commercial heating, a biofuel-blend is used as a transition fuel starting with high use percentages, then tapering off by 2050. The percentage of building converting to heat pumps mirrors the weatherization targets, so while more buildings convert, less BTUs are needed to heat a better weatherized space. More commercial building should be converting to wood to meet their thermal needs.

TABLE 7: WINDHAM REGION COLD CLIMATE HEAT PUMP AND WATER HEATER INSTALLATIONS FOR RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES

	CAP Mitigation LEAP Target 2020	Efficiency VT Reporting,     2020 & 2021	CAP Mitigation LEAP Target 2025
Residential Cold Climate Heat Pump (Households)	1,027	1,698	6,187
Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters (Households)	279	409	4,067
Commercial Cold Climate Heat Pump (Businesses)	448	112	8,052

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Transportation

LEAP assumes that the light duty vehicle fleet (passenger vehicles) will transform substantially by 2050. By 2050, the Region’s fleet is targeted to be fueled predominately by electric vehicles and the vehicles powered by gasoline will have dropped significantly. The light truck category following this same pattern. In order to meet targets for increased use of electric vehicles, the LEAP model projects an increase in passenger electric vehicle (EV) and plug in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) stock between 2015 to 2025 of 912 vehicles (Table 8). The light duty truck target is 911 vehicles by 2025. EV registration data from Efficiency Vermont for all categories of vehicles show that over the two years of 2020 and 2021, there were 910 EV and PHEV vehicles registered in the Windham Region. The EV registrations need to maintain this rate of growth in order to meet our 2025 target.
TABLE 8: WINDHAM REGION LEAP MODEL TARGETS FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES

	# of Vehicles 2015	# of Vehicles 2025
Passenger Cars	58	970
Light Duty Trucks	26	937
Total Target Vehicles	84	1,907

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Electricity

It is challenging to separate electricity into its own category for the LEAP targets. For instance, transportation and heating rely heavily on an increase in electricity as a fuel source. The targets within these sectors focus on the savings from energy efficiency in appliances and equipment. The electricity efficiency target goals in the residential and commercial sectors are ambitious and need the adoption of energy efficient appliances and equipment. The funding and programs to support the level of efficiency upgrades needed are not robust enough at this time. Organizations like Efficiency Vermont works towards these targets, however, more support will be necessary to reach the LEAP targets.

GENERATION TARGETS

As of 2019, the Windham Region generated 566,991,255 kWh of electricity. In order to achieve the 90x50 goal, the target for the Region is 58,493MWh. This equates to 45 MW in new renewable energy generation by 2050. This generation target will have to be met with a variety of different technologies. Solar and wind generation are thought to have the highest capacity in the region and state, however, it will take a mix of many different renewable energy technologies to meet the Region’s targets.

BIOGENERATION

Biomass is unique from other renewable energy generation technologies as the generation capacity is not inextricably linked to the site. Biomass resources are harvested from a location and then transported to a generation facility. There are no electricity generating wood fired plants in the Windham Region. As of January 2024, there are 4 biomass generation projects that produce 25kW.

Approximately 472,000 acres (82%) of the Windham Region is forested. The region’s forestry industry is one of the state’s leading producers, especially of high-quality northern hardwoods and white pine. Windham County also has the most standing timber, 3.46 billion board feet, in the State. This yields well over 100,000 green tons of low-grade wood material. With the forests producing significantly more than what is being harvested, this number is projected to increase in the future. Seventy-two percent of the region’s forests are in private, non-industrial ownership, with industrial firms and Federal, State and local governments sharing the rest.

The Region could be ideal as a hub for biomass usage and generation by tapping into this abundant resource and applying it to the heating sector. Through incentives offered by the State of Vermont, and a program called Windham Wood Heat that was administered through WRC between 2015 – 2022, many schools and public serving institutions converted to advanced wood heating.

Environmental impacts must also be considered with biomass power. The combustion of wood produces heat and emissions including hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), fine particle pollution (ash), and volatile organic compounds (VOC). The pollutant of greatest concern to human health is fine particles (10 microns or less in diameter), which may be inhaled and cause a number of respiratory illnesses. Several other emissions are also of concern to air and water quality, including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur oxides (SOx), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Emissions of NOx (if kept below 1,300 Celsius) and SOx from burning wood are significantly lower than coal and petroleum and are comparable to those of natural gas. Particulate levels in wood emissions are similar to those from burning coal and petroleum and substantially higher than the levels in the emissions from natural gas. Particulate emissions can be controlled to acceptable levels with smoke stack equipment such as scrubbers, bag filters, and electrostatic precipitators; however, this equipment is only cost effective on large commercial-sized combustion systems. Particulate emissions from smaller equipment, especially residential-sized units can be a concern.[<a id="fnote2" name="fnote2"></a><a href="#footnote2">²</a>]

The CO2 in wood combustion emissions is considered by some to be “carbon-neutral” because it is basically equivalent to the amount of CO2 trees need to grow the same quantity of wood. Hence the combustion of wood does not contribute to the net increase in atmospheric levels of CO2 (a greenhouse gas) as does the combustion of fossil fuels. However, because this concept is not universally accepted, the impacts of this power source must be considered as carefully as those of other combustion fuel sources.

In addition to biomass, there are 4 methane sites in the Windham Region. These include the Brattleboro Waste Water Treatment Plant, the Windham Solid Waste Management District landfill, Westminster Farms, and Miller Farm. One of the nation's first commercial landfill gas to electricity projects was constructed in Brattleboro in 1982. Vermont Energy Recovery Systems uses the methane produced at the Windham Solid Waste Management District's Brattleboro landfill to generate and sell electricity to Green Mountain Power. 

Methane is also emitted from volatile solids or animal waste. Anaerobic digesters produce electricity from the methane recovered from cow manure and/or other organic matter. In addition to producing energy and reducing the amount of methane emitted into the atmosphere, this process also reduces water pollution and produces a high-quality fertilizer as a by-product. Westminster Farms, Inc. was the first of this category in the Region.

HYDRO

Hydroelectric power accounted for approximately 2.35% of the total energy consumed in Vermont in 2022[³]. Most hydropower is generated or purchased by Vermont Utilities for Vermont’s electricity needs. Hydropower accounts for 36% of the electricity mix and is the largest portion of the renewable energy portfolio of Vermont utilities. Hydro power is sourced from Hydro Quebec and smaller, privately owned facilities that exist around the region. In the Windham Region, there are 7 hydro facilities that produce 135.69MW.

The major supplier of hydropower for Vermont is Hydro Québec (HQ), a Canadian company. In 2010, 20 Vermont utilities signed a 26-year power contract with HQ to purchase up to 225 MW of electricity from January 2012 through 2038. In addition, HQ and the Vermont utilities agreed to share any future revenues related to environmental attributes of HQ power generation flowing into Vermont.[⁴]

In 2022 Hydro Quebec purchased the hydro-electric dams along the Connecticut and Deerfield Rivers in Vermont and New Hampshire from Great River Hydro, LLC. In the Windham Region, Hydro Quebec (still operating under the name Great River Hydro) operates hydroelectric stations and associated storage reservoirs and dams on the Connecticut and Deerfield Rivers.  The Bellows Falls Dam and Vernon Dam are located on the Connecticut River. The Bellows Falls Dam and has a generating capacity of 49 MW.  The Vernon Dam is the oldest dam, in service since 1909, and has a generating capacity of 37 MW. The Searsburg Dam and Station, located on the Deerfield River, is rated at 5 MW. The Harriman Dam and Station, located in Wilmington and Whitingham, includes three generating units capable of producing 41 MW of electric power. Sherman Reservoir lies mostly in Vermont but its electric generation occurs in Massachusetts, with a capacity of 6 MW.

All hydro facilities of significant size are licensed by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). New projects may also require a permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. These federal permits trigger state review delegated under the federal Clean Water Act. The FERC permitting process can take two to seven years to complete. Periodically these plants have to renew their licenses. Generally, the re-licensing process results in permit conditions that require plant owners to sacrifice some operating flexibility in order to mitigate the environmental impacts of their facilities. For some hydro facilities, this has resulted in a 10 to 20 percent loss of energy production.[⁵]

The current licenses for each of the Wilder, Bellows Falls, and the Vernon Hydroelectric Projects (TransCanada) and the Turners Falls Hydroelectric Project and Northfield Mountain Pumped Storage Project (FirstLight) expired in 2018. All projects utilize water from the Connecticut River to generate hydroelectric power. The licenses were issued by the FERC for terms of 30 to 50 years. TransCanada and FirstLight are currently working on relicensing process for these dams using FERC’s Integrated Licensing Process (ILP).

According to assessments completed by the State, it is clear that the best hydropower sites have already been developed. There are very few undeveloped sites that could support capacity greater than 1 MW, and relatively few in the 500 kW to 1 MW range. There are many potential smaller community and residential-scale sites sized below 200 kW. Incentives such as net metering, group net metering, and the Standard Offer Program are necessary to facilitate the development of smaller sites. The Agency of Natural Resources (ANR) has recently approved sites with generation capability as low as 15 kW.[⁶]

According to the ANR, the hydro resource is already heavily developed in Vermont. Further development would likely result in intermittent manipulation of stream flows and water levels, a possible increase in flood hazards resulting from the disruption of natural river processes, some loss of riverine aquatic habitat, and barriers to movement of fish and other aquatic life. ANR’s 2008 Report The Development of Small Hydroelectric Projects in Vermont identified the following criteria as necessary for any new hydroelectric generator to have acceptable environmental impacts:

• No new dam or other barrier to aquatic organism movement and sediment transport.
• Run-of-river operation.
• Bypass flows necessary to protect aquatic habitat, provide for aquatic organism passage, and support aesthetics.
• Fish passage where appropriate.
• No change in the elevation of an existing impoundment or in water level management.
• No degradation of water quality, particularly with respect to dissolved oxygen, temperature, and turbidity.
• No change in the upstream or downstream flood profile or fluvial erosion hazard.

Because there are few undeveloped sites that are candidates for new hydroelectric plants, three effective ways to increase capacity by improving efficiency and output at existing hydroelectric facilities include: installing more efficient turbines, installing small turbines at the dams that utilize bypass flows, and installing new turbines that can operate efficiently over a wider range of flows. These upgrades are often possible without changing current operating requirements, i.e., power production can be increased without additional environmental impacts. In addition, existing municipal water supply and wastewater treatment pipelines could capture the energy in these systems by installing hydro turbines to the pipelines without otherwise altering the regular operation of the system. Such in-pipe hydroelectric systems have minimal environmental impact.

SOLAR

Solar energy is categorized by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) as an “other renewable,” a category that provided about 1.7% of the energy used in Vermont in 2022, almost entirely in the residential sector. Solar energy can be used either to generate electricity or to generate heat. As of 2024, the Windham Region has a total solar capacity of 46mWh, with 38mW coming from 15kW and greater sites.

In 1998, the Legislature enacted a Net Metering law (30 V.S.A. § 219a) requiring electric utilities to permit customers to generate their own power using small-scale renewable energy systems of 15 kW or less. The excess power generated by these systems can be fed back to the utility, basically running the electric meters backwards. The law has been amended multiple times, but still continues to be an important tool in residential solar installations. According the Vermont Public Service Department, as of January 2024 the Windham Region had a total of 1,298 net-metered sites and 24,715.47 kW of installed capacity.[⁷] The region also had two non-net metered sites with a capacity of 4,160kW.

As the demand to install solar on residential and commercial properties increase, the electric grid at its current capacity can handle the increase to varying degrees depending on availability of appropriate transmission lines and the capacity of substations. Green Mountain Power created an interactive Solar Map in an effort to help Vermonters generate power closer to where it is needed to increase reliability and costs. The map allows Vermonters to see where solar energy is being generated and how it ties into the grid. 

GMP has created a color system to show Vermonters where capacity for new solar is abundant and where the grid is at or approaching capacity. The map itself is meant to help educate Vermonters about projects across the state and their impact on the grid system.

FIGURE 20: GREEN MOUNTAIN SOLAR HOSTING CAPACITY MAPS

A potential drawback of PV (solar) power is cost. When compared to the current market price forecast for electricity, the price of PV remains high. There is data that suggests that state and federal incentives have served as major drivers in the rate of solar facilities installation. Despite cost issues, PV power has several advantages that make it a power source that the state should continue to support. PV is largely a peak electric load–following resource, meaning that during peak summer loads, the PV systems are at their highest production, resulting in peak shaving and grid reliability benefits. In addition, PV power is generated without noise, requires low levels of maintenance, emits no pollution, and is extremely distributable.

While there is currently relatively little controversy about solar energy as a source of power, potential conflicts arise with the siting of solar installations. Ground-mounted systems tend to be larger in scale that roof mounted systems, and generally are sited on undeveloped or agricultural land. Depending on placement, solar fields can have negative impacts on forest connectivity and prime agricultural fields. Complaints have arisen about aesthetics and the panels interrupting the scenic quality of an area. Installations covering large acreage should not only deem a project suitable based on solar capacity, but should evaluate the impacts that the installation has on the natural resources and historic settings of the site. In some cases, the installation should provide mitigation in the form of retained agricultural soils or forested patches on site or conserved agricultural or forest land of equal value elsewhere in the region. Roof top systems have the advantage of requiring zero additional development of open land, though conflicts can arise if these systems are installed in areas with historic district overlays, or where neighboring trees may shade out the system for a substantial period of the day. Towns should consider these issues and address them in their plans and zoning bylaws.

WIND

Wind energy is categorized by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) as an “other renewable,” a category that provided about 1.7% of the energy used in Vermont in 2022.[⁸] Wind energy is used primarily to generate electricity, but not as a source for heat. As of 2019, the Windham Region had 13 wind generation projects with a total capacity of 36.06 MW.

In 1997, Green Mountain Power developed Vermont’s first modern, commercial wind-generating station in Searsburg, consisting of 11 turbines with combined total power rating of 6 MW. The Vermont Public Service Board approved the project, despite its relatively high cost due to its perceived value as a demonstration project. In 2009, the Public Service Board granted a Certificate of Public Good permitting Deerfield Wind to construct a 30 MW facility, consisting of 15 wind turbines, in Searsburg and Readsboro.

Small-scale, net metered installations that serve homes, businesses, and communities are also located throughout the region. Small-scale wind facilities are most often represented by a single turbine, which can generate from less than 1 kW up to 100 kW for a small commercial machine. A number of factors affect the success of a small wind project. To harness the best wind spectrum, turbine siting is absolutely critical within the microclimate of the landscape. Turbines must be positioned so they extend as high as possible above obstacles like trees. Technical expertise to maintain the system is also essential. As of January 2024, there were a total of 8 net metered wind facilities, and 1 non-net metered, in the region with a combined capacity of 2,320 kW.

Wind power is considered a complement to solar in a renewable energy portfolio. When solar power is low or unavailable, during cloudy days or at night, the wind is often more potent. For example, during Vermont’s winter, when sunlight is diminished, average wind speeds measure at their annual high. Wind power is intermittent in nature, like many other renewable sources of power; thus, resource planning for effective power grid integration is essential.

Wind power is clean and renewable, but turbine placement can be difficult and controversial because of natural resource impacts, aesthetics, noise, and the need for turbine placement elevations between 2,500-3,300 feet, locations in Vermont that tend to be sensitive with thin soils and steep slopes. The windiest areas in the region are most often on the higher-elevation ridgelines that are sensitive habitats for plants and wildlife, and are the source of the region’s most pristine headwaters. In areas where road access does not exist, new permanent roads must be built to service the wind facility. Other potentially negative environmental impacts include bird and bat mortality, habitat disruption and fragmentation, erosion, pollution from facility maintenance, turbine noise, and visual flicker.

 

 

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[1]We note that when heating oil prices were rising the region saw a significant switch towards compressed natural gas by some of the major industrial facilities in the region. It is possible that if natural gas remains competitive that the region will see an increase in use of natural gas. This gas is trucked into the region.

[2] Extension, http://www.extension.org/pages/43735/what-are-the-air-emissions-of-burning-wood

[3] US Energy Information Administration Vermont State Energy Profile. 2022 Vermont Energy Consumption Estimates. https://www.eia.gov/state/print.php?sid=VT

[4] Vermont Department of Public Service, Biennial Report July 1, 2006 - June 30, 2010, July 2011, http://publicservice.vermont.gov/sites/psd/files/Pubs_Plans_Reports/Biennial_Reports/2010%20Biennial%20-%20Publication%20Draft.pdf

[5] Vermont Department of Public Service, Biennial Report July 1, 2006 - June 30, 2010, July 2011, http://publicservice.vermont.gov/sites/psd/files/Pubs_Plans_Reports/Biennial_Reports/2010%20Biennial%20-%20Publication%20Draft.pdf

[6] Vermont Department of Public Service, Comprehensive Energy Plan 2011, http://publicservice.vermont.gov/publications/energy_plan

[7] Public Service Department list of renewable distributed generation in Vermont (<5MW). Distributed to RPC’s in January 2024.

[8] US Energy Information Administration: Vermont State Energy Profile. Based on Vermont Energy Consumption Estimates for 2022. https://www.eia.gov/state/print.php?sid=VT